- the Opium Wars of 1840-1842 and 1860-1861
- Boxer Rebellion (1900–1901), a peasant uprising that attempted to expel all foreigners from China, eventually suppressed by an international coalition
- unilateral; one-sided
- to lose; to miss; to fail
- 准 zhǔn: 准 zhun3: to allow; to grant; in accordance with; in the light of准 zhǔn: 准 zhun3: accurate; standard; definitely; certainly; about to become (bride, son-in-law etc); quasi-; para-
- country's territory; national land
- Balkan
- far-reaching; profound and long-lasting
- the outside; (attributive) external; exterior; surface
- 关 guān: 关 guan1: mountain pass; to close; to shut; to turn off; to confine; to lock (sb) up; to shut (sb in a room, a bird in a cage etc); to concern; to involve关 Guān: 关 Guan1: surname Guan
- image; form; figure; CL:個|个[ge4]; visualization; vivid
- long (tradition, history etc)
- continuity
- complexity
- huge; immense; enormous; gigantic
- scale; scope; extent
- to exclaim in admiration; a gasp of surprise
- historical material or data
- ethics
- esthetics; appreciating the arts; taste
- system; setup; CL:個|个[ge4]
- in a word; in short; in brief
- characteristic; diagnostic property; distinctive feature; trait
- an era; an age; a generation
- entirely different; different as black and white
- Egypt
- to spread; to circulate; to hand down
- so far; to this day; until now
- large scale; extensive; wide scale; broad scale
- ancient Greece
- to absorb; to assimilate; to ingest; to recruit
- Buddhism
- to think critically; (philosophy) to reason; to speculate
- to evolve; evolution
- boundary; border
- to establish; to institute
- ancient Rome
- the Jews; Judea
- custom; tradition; local tradition; convention
- 稍 shào: 稍 shao4: used in 稍息[shao4 xi1]稍 shāo: 稍 shao1: somewhat; a little